Government pressure has forced many independent media to close, and has driven dozens of journalists into exile, Reporters Without Borders (RSF) has said.

"Journalists who do not succumb to self-censorship are harassed by security services, and are targeted for intimidation and blackmail. Some are officially categorised as 'terrorists'", RSF added.

Television is the most popular medium. The State Committee for TV and Radio operates national and regional networks.

There are more than a dozen private TV stations. Russian TV is widely-watched. Radio can be the sole source of information for those in very remote areas.

The newspaper sector comprises government-owned and private titles. Most of these publish weekly and circulation figures are low.

There were 3 million internet users by July 2022, 30% of the population (Internetworldstats.com).

The authorities routinely block websites and social media. Internet users turn to proxies to get around this. Opposition websites operate mainly from abroad.

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